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The Arusha-based Urban Vegetable Promotion Project had the idea that small plots of vegetable cultivated by urban dwellers might be an answer to inadequate nutrition. Participatory Urban Appraisal (PUA) training was held for community workers who would be involved in the project. This report details both the theoretical and practical sessions, including the data that emerged from activities such as income and expenditure calendar, social mapping, time line, pairwise ranking of problems around cultivation of plots, and option assessment charts. Although materials used (eg bottle tops) for activities suggest the urban context, as well as 'negative attitudes' towards participating, the specific differences of working in an urban context are not explicitly addressed in the report.

This chapter sets out some principles of semi-structured interviewing. Often, a set of sub-topics of interest have been identified. These guide the interview. It is also guided by other tools used in the interview and by the selection of interviewees. Site and interviewee selection, made to take account of research hypotheses, are important, but can shift as the RRA proceeds. Triangulation can enhance the overall validity and reliability of interviews. This can also be done by focusing on different hierarchical levels of a system. The paper has sections on preparation for interviews, organisation of RRA work in time and space, protocols, who to interview, where to interview, group vs. individual or household interviews, closing the group ("important to control the direction of the interview"), non-verbal factors, controlling the interview, judging responses, probing, and leading questions. Other tools considered include conceptual tools such as calendars, maps etc., oral history, observation and direct measurement. The paper ends with a discussion of common errors.

This brief note, from the author's experiences in Zimbabwe, covers two topics. The first is a plea to make rhetoric about indigenous knowledge genuine, and to recognize the contribution of village colleagues by crediting them with co-authorship in publications. The second cautionary note relates how a facilitator attempted to lead a participatory discussion with such energy and enthusiasm that "he gave a lovely performance" but "probably mistook his own...energy (the production of his own show) for participation".

ActionAid was selected as a collaborating NGO on a World Bank-supported, Government of Karnataka programme to mobilise community participation in water and sanitation supply. The short article describes "how the village people...will own the project from start to finish". A 'sense of ownership' in the new scheme was instilled by making village communities contribute to the costs, to ensure that they will be prepared to take responsibility for operation and maintenance. NGOs ensure funds are raised and also involve everyone in the village in planning, especially women, scheduled cases/tribes and the poorest. 3 day PRA exercises were conducted, involving Venn diagramming, social mapping, seasonality analysis, water resource mapping and discussion meetings. An example is given of a visual representation of the scheme which created a forum in which to discuss the plans and make modifications. Government officials were willing to listen to villagers and discuss with them, but it is noted that Block and District level officials only attended meetings, so missing a chance to learn. It is hoped that the PRA exercises will be the start of continuing community involvement and sustainability of the programme.

This paper reports an investigation of possible disincentive effects associated with food for work in a locality in North Omo, Ethiopia. The focus is on disincentives to agricultural innovation. Three options to test a disincentive hypothesis are presented, two being rejected as inappropriate to the locality (due to pervasiveness of food for work and constraints on modelling techniques). Therefore a rapid attitude survey was undertaken in just over 24 hours. The methods described include design of a questionnaire after consultation with various parties, administering the questionnaire and computer analysis. The results indicate limited agricultural resources, but high awareness of innovations and willingness to innovate. Removal of food for work would lead some farmers to seek cash employment, but to less trading, intercropping and row planting. This suggests food for work enhances innovation rather than provides a disincentive, or possibly had no effect.

This article is from a special issue on focus groups (FGs). FGs can be used to gain insights into the dynamic relationships of attitudes, opinions, motivations, concerns and problems related to current and projected activities. They developed in the private sector as a market research tool, but have been adapted for use in other types of project. The article defines FGs, and discusses its uses, primarily in relation to qualitative research. The advantages of this method are discussed, and contrasted with more conventional and quantitative research methods. The methodology of group session research is described under the headings: sample design, specific group requirements, group discussion guide, conducting the sessions, attitude of the moderator, and evaluation, analysis and interpretation of results. The application of FG research to social action projects is discussed. Throughout, reference is made to examples from a family planning project in Mexico.

Staff of the Nepal Health Development Project have designed a method of examining the relationship between the project's human resource development initiatives and the concrete outputs and outcomes that result. The method ('Process Evaluation') is a participatory method which focuses on the capacity building experience itself. PE allows the researchers to analyse the strengths and weaknesses inherent in a project/activity's design, and to analyse the external constraints and enablers that influence progress towards goals. To the extent that project beneficiaries and implementors design and carry out PE, the methodology is itself a tool for capacity building. The methodology has 4 characteristics: (i) use of a conceptual model around which to examine capacity building; (ii) reliance on participatory strategies; (iii) use of participatory appraisal techniques; (iv) a qualitative approach to indicator development and investigation. PE is described and explained in 4 sections, one devoted to each of the above characteristics. It is recognised that where there is participation, there is potential for conflict. The conceptual model provides a common reference point, and can be used to enhance participation in a diverse group. The evaluation exercise was used to help 'bridge the gap' between a number of distinct components of the organisation's work. The model was applied to each of these components and the results for each are presented. The final section presents lessons regarding the methodology learned through the evaluation process.