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This workshop introduced the participatory learning approach (PALM) to the ODA Slum Improvement Project Implementation Staff from four states in India. Fieldwork was conducted in the slums of Hyderabad to give participants experience applying the tools introduced. The workshop encouraged practionners to recognize urban people's knowledge and skills, and to identify local resources. The workshop introduced PRA methods for use in urban areas. These methods included mapping, seasonality, matrix ranking, Venn diagramming, and livelihood analysis.

The benefits of using PRA at local level are described, by members of the water and sanitation team who are working with communities in Kenya. Both relevance and participation are increased, and the locals become partners in the project. However, PRA is thought to be demanding and 'very involving'.

This provides an update on the particpatory project in water and sanitation undertaken in Karnataka by Actionaid and partners. It details the early development of the programme, the participatory training project staff underwent, and the PRA work carried out. There is an emphasis on mapping, and large group meetings. These provide predominantly extractive information, but also legitimation for the programme. Eight PRA techniques are used in each district, culminating in a planning excercise. The participants and their varying responses are also recorded.

This manual is primarily aimed at helping aid staff supervise in a way which deepens insight into local situations, is supportive of health workers, and is focused on improving the quality of service to the poor. The checklists of questions are intended to be adapted rather than definitively applied. This manual gives practical advice on avoiding the pomp and ceremony of visits which often distracts from appreciating the health situation at community level. RRA techniques are recommended in order to gain a real understanding of health needs.

The first section focuses on training techniques for PRA. There is an emphasis on the use of role play, for semistructured interviewing. Both bad and good interviews were improvised. The second section concentrates on the field visits, detailing both the methodology and the findings. After each technique there is a section on 'new learnings' which details both interesting aspects of the villagers agriculturall systems, and the facilitators thoughts on the use of PRA. Maps, matrices, time lines and interviews were used.

This short list of numbered steps explains how to organise the "fruit salad" game in order to "get the group active and awake" and as a way of forming sub-groups.

Compilation of extracts form various PRA publications and articles on several key issues and questions in PRA.

A brief summary by bullet points of lessons from the Dry Zone project. The last page is table of PRA steps taken, the principles applied, the tools used and the important learning experiences.

RRA and PRA are cited as examples of methodological innovations which are important in the development work of NGOs. The spread in the use of these techniques is discussed, and the differences between training in RRA and the experiential understanding of PRA is stressed. Self improving relies not on quality control, training and manuals from a centre, but on making self critical awareness an integral part of the approach. However, this requires vision, will and creativity on the part of individuals and a change in the culture of NGOs and government organisations.

This article cautions against placing too much faith in pictures used in PRA. Since attributed meanings are informed by prior experience, it is not straightforward that illiterate people read pictures in the same way. Interpretations of pictures representing home grain storage with farmers, their wives and children were tested, and compared with drawings done by farmers. examples of 'misunderstandings' and differing interpretations are given. The paper concludes that pictures should be field tested, or better still, drawn by participants.