Resources

Section seven of this workshop report focuses specifically on M&E and Project Benefit M&E (PBME). The introduction to this section lists some of the shortcomings, or 'weaknesses', of a "conventional" M&E program and then highlights some of the main 'potential contributions' from RRA methodologies for M&E activities. These include; increasing the cost effectiveness of data collection in areas such as cropping calendars, labour profiles, and crop and input prices; helping in determining cropping parameters and; improving the effectiveness monitoring through the use of diagnostic surveys. In the second section, Mick Howes explores the uses of RRA methodologies to evaluate NGO projects. Using the example of the preliminary study of an irrigation tank renovation project in Sri Lanka, the author provides a useful account of an evaluation approach which employs some RRA methods in determining 'the context', 'the impact, 'project the system' of the NGO's intervention. Methods included mapping techniques, group interviews and household case studies. In the concluding discussion, the author suggests points in which RRA methods may be further employed to improve both the case study evaluation and other participatory forms of evaluation of NGO projects.

The author had to field test alley cropping in Nigeria with limited-resource farmers. There was much resistance to a concept which did not translate well into any local language, thereby creating confusion. Alley cropping also promoted tree planting when local practice required clearing them; women were especially reluctant to plant trees on their land as it could lead to repatriation of their land by their men. Together with several villagers and teachers, the author came up with a play about the 'Fertiliser Bush' which could be performed by community members. The fertilizer idea was locally well- understood and the use of drama was traditionally respected and enjoyed.

Farmers are seen as informants in most development projects, despite their detailed knowledge and understanding of processes. In the work of the Aga Khan Rural Support Project, the farmers not only gather the information themselves, but they analyse it and make decisions based on their own analysis. The article gives a number of ways in which farmers are encouraged to develop their information gathering and analytical skills. It also discusses farmers' abilities as facilitators and presenters. Six types of farmer generated maps are described in detail, including resource, watershed, thematic, social, base line and monitoring/impact maps.

An action learning approach using Rapid Analysis Methods - a modified form of RRA - has been developed by the Development Adminstration Group (DAG) at the University of Birmingham. The approach has been used in urban management training courses run by DAG and the Town and Country Planning Organisation (TCPO) in the Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, India. The aim of the methodology is to enhance problem-solving ability. This weakness in problem analysis has recently been identified as a central concern in the need to strengthen indigenous policy-making capacity. The article discusses the extent to which ideas about RRA can be transferred to the urban context and used in training programmes for government officials.

This article is extracted from a report outlining the experiences of a partnership between the 'People's Dialogue', a national network linking representatives from illegal and informal settlements in South Africa, and a group of three organisations in India. These are SPARC, an NGO working broadly in the area of housing and community development; the National Slum Dwellers Federation; and Mahila Milan, a federation of women's collectives. The article describes several of the participatory methods and techniques which are used in community-based shelter training programmes, and explains why the training process is important to community development. It argues that experiential learning is a more useful approach than those offered by conventional training.

Discusses the methods of collecting information during a field-study carried out in Brazil, in the health district of Pau da Lima. It was intended to provide a learning experience for students as well as to explore the local potential for Primary Environmental Care (PEC) and to produce a number of recommendations to local bodies. Possible actors, conditions, means and resources to promote PEC within the Pau da Lima district were investigated. PEC integrates three components: empowering communities, protecting the environment, and meeting needs. The first step was a preliminary identification of present and future potential actors in PEC in the Pau da Lima district. A Rapid Appraisal (RA) was conducted in three squatter communities within the district, focusing on felt problems; interests and priorities in PEC; forms and conditions of community organisation; and instances and conditions of community-based action. Methods used include: review of secondary data, informal disucssions with informants, direct observations, laboratory analysis of water samples collected during the observation walks, life history interviews, focus groups and ranking exercises, semi-structured interviews. While the study found the RA methods useful, it suggested that they may not be sufficient to identify community-based solutions to specific problems. The techniques in "Making Microplans" (Goethert and Hamdi 1988) provide an example of how this action-oriented phase could proceed.

Slum improvement projects (SIPs) are integrated urban development projects which incorporate physical improvements with community development programmes. The article describes the use of PALM (Participatory Learning Method) to increase community participation in slum improvement projects in urban slums in India. Methods which have been found useful in this context include resource mapping, seasonal calendars and activity schedules, focus group discussions, wealth and well-being ranking, trend analyses, venn diagrams and matrices. Experience has shown that while PALM can help to enhance the process of people's participation, it needs to be accompanied by attitudinal and organisational change to be really effective.