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It is widely recognised that farmers, like agricultural research scientists, are experimenters. Yet in general farmers' research has been ignored by the scientific community. This study was carried out by researchers at the International Typanotolerance Centre (ITC), to investigate local livestock-related innovations in two sites in the Gambia. Semi-structured interviews were used to elicit a range of information regarding livestock management. A number of innovations were identified, although the paper focuses specifically on those relating to the management of feed inputs and their subsequent conversion into draft power. It was found that by 'seeking innovation' from farmers viable, locally-adapted innovations could be identified quickly and cheaply. Furthermore, locally-derived technologies had more credibility with farmers as they were able to see and discuss new ideas directly with the innovator.

This article describes the technique of ranking and provides three examples of using ranking to collect information. The exercises were all carried out by the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The first example is from a baseline survey in Zimbabwe using wealth ranking. The second is a disease ranking which was carried out during monitoring of the Kenya Livestock and Pastoral Programme (KLPP). The third example is of a success ranking exercise conducted during an evaluation of a restocking programme in Isiolo District in Kenya. It was found that the main advantage of using ranking to collect baseline information or to prioritise problems and solutions was that the information generated could be analysed immediately and, if necessary, decisions could be made on the spot.

The PRA exercise described in this paper was part of an FAO PRA training workshop which was carried out at a time when local people were experiencing one of the worst droughts of the century. Matrix scoring, semi-structured interviews, seasonal food calendars and preference ranking were some of the techniques which were used during the workshop. The exercise highlighted the central importance of livestock to the village economies. The visual methods brought to the surface hidden problems, priorities, preferences and uses of livestock, and helped with deeper probing of issues which were important to the villagers.

Questionnaire surveys and rapid rural appraisal methods were used to collect data on the features, problems and opportunities for smallholder rural poultry production in two locations representing the savanna and forest ecological zones in southwestern Nigeria. Information was gathered on the technical, biological and socio-economic aspects of poultry production. The study assessed the effectiveness of RRA compared to more conventional methods. The results indicated that RRA can be as efficient as questionnaire surveys for collecting quantitative data, and was superior in qualitative data gathering. The questionnaire surveys and RRA methods complemented each other well, although the sequence of use was considered to be important. Administering the questionnaire before the RRA was conducted was preferable as it gave the needed publicity for the RRA and ensured a more balanced representation of interest groups among informants.

The Turkana people of north-west Kenya are nomadic pastoralists, whose livelihood depends largely on their animals. They also engage in other activities such as growing sorghum, fishing, hunting and gathering, and trade. A study was commissioned to investigate the socio-economic context of Turkana living along the lakeshore, including the relationship between the various economic activities. This case study focuses on the technique of proportional piling, which was used to investigate the relative contribution of different economic activities to household food supply. The exercise was carried out twice, for the wet and the dry seasons, to enable seasonal differences to be assessed and discussed. It was found to be a simple, visual method for illustrating relative values and proportions from the perspective of the respondents.

This report and bibliography is intended to provide ACORD programmes with information on the literature concerning participatory development methodologies in Africa. The report provides an overview of the literature and identifies key documents and methods, as well as outlining ACORD's experience in four countries. The bibliography includes ACORD reports relating to participatory techniques, and annotations of easily available selected materials which would be of most interest to ACORD programmes. A list of institutes and organisations that specialise in the development of participatory techniques is also provided.

This paper presents a number of methodological innovations on RRA and PRA in the context of food security. It is interesting in the first instance because it reviews work done as a follow-up to a PRA workshop on household data collection for food policy needs. On the method front, there are examples of mapping, diagramming, ranking and how each method feeds into food policy decisions. An increased use of visual methods is highlighted, and the connected increase in participation in and ownership of the research by local people. Along with this is an increasing importance of qualitative data in food policy decisions. The paper also includes an introduction to and comparison of PRA and RRA. It concludes by commenting that an additional advantage of these methods is that they are cost-effective, but that this may bring a linked disadvantage - that PRA methods are used with the intention of "extracting" information.